„G-kvadruplex” változatai közötti eltérés

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A lap 2023. október 26., 11:59-kori változata

Egy G-kvadruplex szerkezete. Baloldalt G-tetrád, jobboldalt intramolekuláris G4-komplex[1]:fig1

A G-kvadruplex másodlagos szerkezetek (G4) guaninban gazdag szekvenciák által jönnek létre.[2] Ezek helikálisak és 1,[3] 2[4] vagy 4 szálas guanintetrádokból állnak.[5] Az egymolekulás változatok gyakoriak a kromoszómák végén lévő telomereken és számos gén transzkripciószabályzó részein mikrobákban[6][7] és gerincesekben,[8][7] beleértve humán onkogéneket.[9] 4 guanin Hoogsteen-hidrogénkötést alkotva négyzetes szerkezetű guanintetrádot alkothat, és 2 vagy több guanintetrád (folyamatos G-sorozatokból) egymáson G-kvadruplexet alkot.

A G-kvadruplexek elhelyezkedése és kötései nem véletlenszerűek, és különös funkcióik vannak. A kvadruplexet egy tetrádpárok közt középre kerülő kation, különösen a kálium jelenléte stabilizálja.[3] Alkothatja DNS, RNS, ZNS vagy PNS, és lehet molekulán belüli, két- vagy négymolekulás.[10] A szálak vagy azok részeinek ieányától függően a szerkezetek lehetnek párhuzamosak vagy antipárhuzamosak. A G-kvadruplexek DNS- vagy RNS-szekvenciamotívumokból előrejelezhetők,[11][12] de valódi szerkezetük változhat motívumon belül és motívumok közt, amelyekből genomonként több mint 100 000 is lehet. Alapvető genetikai folyamatokban való részvételük miatt kutatják a telomerek, a génszabályzás és a funkciós genomika területén.[13][14]

Története

A nagy guaninasszociációs szerkezeteket 1962-ben azonosították guaninasszociált gélszerű anyagokon keresztül.[15] E kutatás határozta meg a 4 szálú DNS-szerkezetek magas guaninasszociációval való összefüggését, melyeket 1987-ben eukarióta telomerekben fedeztek fel.[16] A G-kvadruplex felfedezésének fontosságát a következő idézet mutatta meg:

Ha in vitro keletkeznek G-kvadruplexek, a természet alkotott egy módot azok in vivo használatára”
Aaron Klug, az 1982-es kémiai Nobel-díj nyertese

A G-kvadruplexek in vivo funkciójának kutatása a nagyméretű genomszintű analízis hatására megnőtt, melyben a potenciális G-kvadruplex-alkotó (pG4) szekvenciák nagy gyakoriságát mutatták ki humán, csimpánz- egér- és patkánypromoterekben, melyeket a 2007. áprilisi első nemzetközi G-kvadruplex-találkozón mutattak be a kentuckyi Louisville-ben.[7] 2006-ban néhány bakteriális promoterben is kimutattak G-kvadruplexeket, G-kvadruplex-mediált génszabályzást feltételezve.[6] A G-kvadruplexek in vivo gyakorisága révén e szerkezetek biológiailag fontosak az onkogének promotereire és a telomerekre való hatásuk révén. Jelenleg a kutatás a G-kvadruplexek funkcióinak azonosítására bizonyos onkogéneknél, valamint a G-kvadruplexeken alapuló hatékony kezelések felfedezésére irányul. A G-kvadruplexek korai bizonyítéka sejtekből való izolációjuk volt,[17] később annak megfigyelésével is igazolták, hogy egyes DNS-helikázok ilyen szerkezetekhez közel vannak nagy mennyiségben.[18]

Káliumtartalmú oldatban lévő intramolekulás humán telomer-G-kvadruplex szerkezete. A vázt cső jelzi. Középen 3 G-tetrád-réteg. A hidrogénkötéseket kék szaggatott vonalak jelzik. PDB: 2HY9

Topológia

A tetrádképzésben részt vevő nukleinsavak gatározzák meg a kvadruplex szerkezetét. A rövid, egyetlen 3 vagy több guainból álló sorozatból álló szekvenciák 4 önálló szálat igényelnek a kvadruplexhez, vagyis az ilyen kvadruplex tetramolekulás. A G4 DNS eredetileg az ilyen szerkezetekre utalt, melyek a meiózisban lehetnek fontosak.[5] Azonban a molekuláris biológia modern szóhasznlatában a G4 bármilyen molekularitású kvadruplexet jelenthet. A hosszabb, két folytonos 3 vagy több guaninból álló sorozatot tartalmazó kvadruplexekhez 2 ilyen szekvencia is elég. Ezek a kvadruplexek így bimolekulárisak. Végül a 4 különböző guaninsorozatot tartalmazó szerkezetek önmaguktól képesek stabil kvadruplexet alkotni, így intramolekulárisak.[19]

A guaninbázisok elrendezésétől függően egy kvadruplex számos alakot felvehet különböző konfigurációkkal.[20] Ha minden DNS-szál azonos irányba halad, a kvadruplex párhuzamos. Intramolekuláris kvadruplexek esetén ekkor minden körnek propellernek kell lennie, melyek a kvadruplex oldalain vannak. Ha egy vagy több guaninsorozat 5’-3’ iránya a többivel ellentétes, a kvadruplex antipárhuzamos. Ekkor a guaninsorozatokat egymáshoz csatlakoztató körök az intramolekulás kvadruplexekben vagy átlósak (ellentétes guaninsorozatokat csatlakoztatók), vagy laterálisak (oldal menti), így két szomszédos guaninsorozatot csatlakoztatnak.

A kétszálú DNS-ből alkotott G-kvadruplexekben lehetségesek szálközi topológiák is.[21][22] E kvadruplexek mindkét DNS-szálból tartalmaznak guanint.

Szerkezete és funkciója a genomban

A humán genom szekvenálása után számos kvadruplexalkotásra képes guaningazdag szekvenciát találtak.[23] A sejt típusától és sejtciklusban való állapotától függően a közvetítő tényezők, például a kromatin DNS-kötő fehérjéi és más környezeti tényezők befolyásolhatják a kvadruplexkeletkezést. Például a molekulazsúfoltságg kvantitatív termodinamikai elemzése alapján az antipárhuzamos G-kvadruplexet a molekulazsúfoltság stabilizálja.[24] Ez feltehetően a DNS-hidratáció megváltozása és ennek Hoogsteen-bázispárkötésre gyakorolt hatása okozza.[25] Ezek gyakran kromoszómák végén fordulnak elő. Továbbá a G-kvadruplex-képzés valószínűsége transzkripció során RNS-ben hajtű- vagy G-kvadruplex-szekvenciák létrehozásához a hajtűlétrehozó szekvencia helyétől függ.[26]

Mivel a javító enzimek a lineáris kromoszómák végeit sérült DNS-ként észlelnék, és ezeket káros hatásként dolgoznák fel, egyértelmű jelzés és szigorú szabályzás kell a kromoszómák végein. A telomerek lehetővé teszik e jelzést. Ezek guaninban gazdagok, hajlamosak G-kvadruplex-képzésre, gyakran a kromoszómák végén vannak, és segítik a genom integritásának megőrzését a végek instabilitástól való védelmével.

E telomereket hosszú CCCTAA:TTAGGG ismétlődések jellemzik. Az ismétlődéek 3'-kiemelkedéssel érnek véget 10-50 egyszálú TTAGGG ismétlődéssel. A heterodimer-komplex ribonukleoprotein telomeráz a DNS-szálak 3'-végéhez TTAGGG sorozatokat ad. A G-gazdag meghosszabbítás képes másodlagos szerkezetek, például G-kvadruplexek létrehozására, ha hosszabb 4 TTAGGG ismétlődésnél. Ezek jelenléte megakadályozza a telomer telomeráz általi elongációját.[27]

Telomerkvadruplexek

A telomerismétlődésekről számos élőlényben kimutatták in vitro a kvadruplexek létrehozását, később pedig kimutatták ugyanezt in vivo.[28][29] A humán telomerismétlődés (mely minden gerincesnél ugyanaz) a TTAGGG számos ismétlődéséből áll, és az így keletkező kvadruplexek 5-8 nm-es gyöngyszerű szerkezetekben fordulhatnak elő, és NMR-, TEM- és röntgenvizsgálatokkal meghatározták.[30] E kvadruplexek keletkezése csökkenti a telomeráz aktivitását, mely a telomerek hosszáért felel, és a rákok 85%-áért felel. Ez egy aktív kutatási célpont gyógyszerek, például a telomesztatin számára.

Nem telomer kvadruplexek

A kvadruplexek nemcsak telomerekben vannak jelen. Humán, csimpánz-, egér- és patkánygenomok elemzése számos pG4 szekvenciát mutatott a telomereken kívül. Sok ilyen kvadruplex volt promoterekben, és ezek a fajok közt állandók maradtak.[6][7] Sok G-kvadruplex található az E. coliban és több száz más mikrobiális genomban. Itt is a gerincesekhez hasonlóan a G-kvadruplexek gyakoriak a promoterekben.[6] Ezenkívül több mint egymilliárd éves G-kvadruplex-lokusz is ismert növényekben és algákban az RNS-polimeráz II nagy alegységének génjében.[31] Bár e tanulmányok G-kvadruplex-mediált génszabályzást jeleztek előre, nem valószínű, hogy minden pG4 in vivo is keletkezik. A c-myc protoonkogén egy génaktivitásért felelős nukleáz-hiperszenzitív régióban G-kvadruplexet alkot.[32][33] További, promoterében G-kvadruplexet tartalmazó gének például a tyúk-β-globin génje, a humán ubikvitin-ligáz RFP2, valamint a c-kit, bcl-2, VEGF, a H-ras és az N-ras.[34][35][36]

Kvadruplexkeletkezési szabályon alapuló genomfelméréseket is végeztek 276 000 humán feltételezett kvadruplexszekvencián, de ezek nem mindegyike alakít in vivo kvadruplexet.[37] Hasonló tanulmányok azonosítottak feltételezett G-kvadruplexeket prokariótákban, például E. coliban.[38] Számos lehetséges modell van a kvadruplexek génaktivitás-módosítására. Egy modell látható lejjebb, ahol egy promoterben vagy ahhoz közel G-kvadruplex alakul ki, blokkolva a gén transzkripcióját, inaktívvá téve azt. Egy másik modellben a nem kódoló DNS-ben lévő kvadruplex lehetővé teszi a kódoló DNS nyitott állását és a megfelelő gén kifejeződésének növelését.

Funkció

It has been suggested that quadruplex formation plays a role in immunoglobulin heavy chain switching.[5] As cells have evolved mechanisms for resolving (i.e., unwinding) quadruplexes that form. Quadruplex formation may be potentially damaging for a cell; the helicases WRN and Bloom syndrome protein have a high affinity for resolving DNA G-quadruplexes.[39] The DEAH/RHA helicase, DHX36, has also been identified as a key G-quadruplex resolvase.[40][41] In 2009, a metastasis suppressor protein NM23H2 (also known as NME2) was found to directly interact with G-quadruplex in the promoter of the c-myc gene, and transcriptionally regulate c-myc.[42][43] More recently, NM23H2 was reported to interact with G-quadruplex in the promoter of the human telomerase (hTERT) gene and regulate hTERT expression [44] In 2019, the telomere-binding-factor-2 (TRF2 or TERF2) was shown to bind to thousands of non-telomeric G-quadruplexes in the human genome by TRF2 ChIP-seq.[45] There are many studies that implicate quadruplexes in both positive and negative transcriptional regulation, including epigenetic regulation of genes like hTERT.[44] Function of G-quadruplexes have also been reported in allowing programmed recombination of immunologlobin heavy genes and the pilin antigenic variation system of the pathogenic Neisseria.[46] The roles of quadruplex structure in translation control are not as well explored. The direct visualization of G-quadruplex structures in human cells[47] as well as the co-crystal structure of an RNA helicase bound to a G-quadruplex[48] have provided important confirmations of their relevance to cell biology. The potential positive and negative roles of quadruplexes in telomere replication and function remains controversial. T-loops and G-quadruplexes are described as the two tertiary DNA structures that protect telomere ends and regulate telomere length.[49]

Genomszabályzás G-kvadruplexek kialakulásával

Számos genomszabályzó folyamat kapcsolatban állhat G-kvadruplexek keletkezésével, mivel a purin- vagy pirimidinmentes (AP-helyek) javításában játszhat szerepet.[50] A new technique to map AP sites has been developed known as AP-seq which utilizes a biotin-labeled aldehyde-reactive probe (ARP) to tag certain regions of the genome where AP site damage occurrence has been significant.[51] Another genome-wide mapping sequencing method known as ChIP-sequencing, was utilized to map both; damage in AP sites, and the enzyme responsible for its repair, AP endonuclease 1 (APE1). Both of these genome-wide mapping sequencing methods, ChIP-sequencing and ARP, have indicated that AP site damage occurrence is nonrandom. AP site damage was also more prevalent in certain regions of the genome that contain specific active promoter and enhancer markers, some of which were linked to regions responsible for lung adenocarcinoma and colon cancer.[52] AP site damage was found to be predominant in PQS regions of the genome, where formation of G-quadruplex structures is regulated and promoted by the DNA repair process, base excision repair (BER).[52] Base excision repair processes in cells have been proved to be reduced with aging as its components in the mitochondria begin to decline, which can lead to the formation of many diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD).[53] These G-quadruplex structures are said to be formed in the promoter regions of DNA through superhelicity, which favors the unwinding of the double helical structure of DNA and in turn loops the strands to form G-quadruplex structures in guanine rich regions.[54] The BER pathway is signalled when it indicates an oxidative DNA base damage, where structures like, 8-Oxoguanine-DNA glycosylase 1 (OGG1), APE1 and G-quadruplex play a huge role in its repair. These enzymes participate in BER to repair certain DNA lesions such as 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), which forms under oxidative stress to guanine bases.[55]

Az endogén oxidációs DNS-károsodás szerepe a G4-kialakulásban

Guanine (G) bases in G-quadruplex have the lowest redox potential causing it to be more susceptible to the formation of 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), an endogenous oxidized DNA base damage in the genome. Due to Guanine having a lower electron reduction potential than the other nucleotides bases,[56]8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), is a known major product of DNA oxidation. Its concentration is used as a measurement of oxidative stress within a cell.[57] When DNA undergoes oxidative damage, a possible structural change in guanine, after ionizing radiation, gives rise to an enol form, 8-OH-Gua. This oxidative product is formed through a tautomeric shift from the original damage guanine, 8-oxo-Gua, and represents DNA damage that causes changes in the structure. This form allows for the base excision repair (BER) enzyme OGG1 to bind and remove the oxidative damage with the help of APE1, resulting in an AP site.[55][53] Moreover, an AP site is a location in DNA that has neither a purine or a pyrimidine base due to DNA damage, they are the most prevalent type of endogenous DNA damage in cells. AP sites can be generated spontaneously or after the cleavage of modified bases, like 8-OH-Gua.[51] The generation of an AP site enables the melting of the duplex DNA to unmask the PQS, adopting a [53] G-quadruplex fold. With the use of genome-wide ChIP-sequencing analyses, cell-based assays, and in vitro biochemical analyses, a connection has been made between oxidized DNA base-derived AP sites, and the formation of the G-quadruplex.[52]

A DNS oxidációjának kapcsolata betegségekkel

Furthermore, the concentration of 8-oxo-dG is a known biomarker of oxidative stress within a cell, and excessive amount of oxidative stress has been linked to carcinogenesis and other diseases.[58] When produced, 8-oxo-dG, has the ability to inactivate OGG1, thus preventing the repair of DNA damage caused by the oxidation of guanine.[52] The possible inactivation allows for un-repaired DNA damages to gather in non-replicating cells, like muscle, and can cause aging as well.[57] Moreover, oxidative DNA damage like 8-oxo-dG contributes to carcinogenesis through the modulation of gene expression, or the induction of mutations.[57] On the condition that 8-oxo-dG is repaired by BER, parts of the repair protein is left behind which can lead to epigenetic alterations, or the modulation of gene expression.[59] Upon insertion of 8-oxo-dG into thymidine kinase gene of humans, it was determine that if 8-oxo-dG was left unchecked and not repaired by BER, it can lead to frequent mutations and eventually carcinogenesis.[52][53]

APE1 role in Gene Regulation

AP endonuclease 1 (APE1) is an enzyme responsible for the promotion and the formation of G-quadruplex structures. APE1 is mainly in charge of repairing damage caused to AP sites through the BER pathway. APE1 is considered to be very crucial as AP site damage is known to be the most recurring type of endogenous damage to DNA.[59] The oxidation of certain purine bases, like guanine, forms oxidized nucleotides that impairs DNA function by mismatching nucleotides in the sequences.[57] This is more common in PQS sequences which form oxidized structures, such as 8-oxoguanine. Once the cell is aware of oxidative stress and damage, it recruits OGG1 to the site, whose main function is to initiate the BER pathway.[52] OGG1 does so by cleaving the oxidized base and thus creating an AP site, primarily through the process of negative superhelicity.[54] This AP site then signals cells to engage APE1 binding, which binds to the open duplex region.[58] The binding of APE1 then plays an important role by stabilizing the formation of G-quadruplex structures in that region. This promotes formation of G-quadruplex structures by the folding of the stand.[60] This looping process brings four bases in close proximity that will be held together by Hoogsteen base pairing. After this stage the APE1 gets acetylated by multiple lysine residues on the chromatin, forming acetylated APE1 (AcAPE1).[60] AcAPE1 is very crucial to the BER pathway as it acts as a transcriptional coactivator or corepressor, functioning to load transcription factors (TF) into the site of damage allowing it to regulate the gene expression.[61] AcAPE1 is also very important since it allows APE1 to bind for longer periods of time by delay of its dissociation from the sequence, allowing the repair process to be more efficient.[62] Deacetylation of AcAPE1 is the driving force behind the loading of these TFs, where APE1 dissociates from the G-quadruplex structures.[63] When a study downregulated the presence of APE1 and AcAPE1 in the cell, the formation of G-quadruplex structures was inhibited, which proves the importance of APE1 for the formation of these structures. However, not all G-quadruplex structures require APE1 for formation, in fact some of them formed greater G-quadruplex structures in its absence.[52] Therefore, we can conclude that APE1 has two important roles in genome regulation- Stabilizing the formation of g-quadruplex structures and loading the transcriptional factors onto the AP site

Cancer

Telomeres

G-quadruplex forming sequences are prevalent in eukaryotic cells, especially in telomeres, 5` untranslated strands, and translocation hot spots. G-quadruplexes can inhibit normal cell function, and in healthy cells, are easily and readily unwound by helicase.  However, in cancer cells that have mutated helicase these complexes cannot be unwound and leads to potential damage of the cell. This causes replication of damaged and cancerous cells. For therapeutic advances, stabilizing the G-quadruplexes of cancerous cells can inhibit cell growth and replication leading to the cell's death.[64]

Promoter Regions

Along with the association of G-quadruplexes in telomeric regions of DNA, G-quadruplex structures have been identified in various human proto-oncogene promoter regions. The structures most present in the promoter regions of these oncogenes tend to be parallel-stranded G-quadruplex DNA structures.[65] Some of these oncogenes include c-KIT, PDGF-A, c-Myc and VEGF, showing the importance of this secondary structure in cancer growth and development. While the formation of G-quadruplex structure vary to some extent for the different promoter regions of oncogenes, the consistent stabilization of these structures have been found in cancer development.[66] Current therapeutic research actively focuses on targeting this stabilization of G-quadruplex structures to arrest unregulated cell growth and division.

One particular gene region, the c-myc pathway, plays an integral role in the regulation of a protein product, c-Myc. With this product, the c-Myc protein functions in the processes of apoptosis and cell growth or development and as a transcriptional control on human telomerase reverse transcriptase.[67] Interaction of c-Myc promoter G-quadruplex with NM23H2 was shown to regulate c-Myc in cancer cells in 2009 [42]

Regulation of c-myc through Human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) is also directly regulated through promoter G-quadruplex by interaction with the transcription factor NM23H2 where epigenetic modifications were dependent on NM23H2-G-quadruplex association.[44] Recently, hTERT epigenetic regulation reported to be mediated through interaction of hTERT promoter G-quadruplex with the telomeric factor TRF2.[68]

Another gene pathway deals with the VEGF gene, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, which remains involved in the process of angiogenesis or the formation of new blood vessels. The formation of an intramolecular G-quadruplex structure has been shown through studies on the polypurine tract of the promoter region of the VEGF gene. Through recent research on the role of G-quadruplex function in vivo, the stabilization of G-quadruplex structures was shown to regulate VEGF gene transcription, with inhibition of transcription factors in this pathway. The intramolecular G-quadruplex structures are formed mostly through the abundant guanine sequence in the promoter region of this specific pathway.[69] The cyclin-dependent cell cycle checkpoint kinase inhibitor-1 CDKN1A (also known as p21) gene harbours promoter G-quadruplex. Interaction of this G-quadruplex with TRF2 (also known as TERF2) resulted in epigenetic regulation of p21, which was tested using the G-quadruplex-binding ligand 360A.[70]

Hypoxia inducible factor 1ɑ, HIF-1ɑ, remains involved in cancer signaling through its binding to Hypoxia Response Element, HRE, in the presence of hypoxia to begin the process of angiogenesis. Through recent research into this specific gene pathway, the polypurine and polypyrimidine region allows for the transcription of this specific gene and the formation of an intramolecular G-quadruplex structure. However, more research is necessary to determine whether the formation of G-quadruplex regulates the expression of this gene in a positive or negative manner.[71]

The c-kit oncogene deals with a pathway that encodes an RTK, which was shown to have elevated expression levels in certain types of cancer. The rich guanine sequence of this promoter region has shown the ability to form a variety of quadruplexes. Current research on this pathway is focusing on discovering the biological function of this specific quadruplex formation on the c-kit pathway, while this quadruplex sequence has been noticed in various species.[36]

The RET oncogene functions in the transcription of kinase which has been abundant in certain types of cancer. The guanine rich sequence in the promoter region for this pathway exudes a necessity for baseline transcription of this receptor tyrosine kinase. In certain types of cancers, the RET protein has shown increased expression levels. The research on this pathway suggested the formation of a G-quadruplex in the promoter region and an applicable target for therapeutic treatments.[72]

Another oncogene pathway involving PDGF-A, platelet-derived growth factor, involves the process of wound healing and function as mitogenic growth factors for cells. High levels of expression of PDGF have been associated with increased cell growth and cancer. The presence of a guanine-rich sequence in the promoter region of PDGF-A has exhibited the ability to form intramolecular parallel G-quadruplex structures and remains suggested to play a role in transcriptional regulation of PDGF-A. However, research has also identified the presence of G-quadruplex structures within this region due to the interaction of TMPyP4 with this promoter sequence.[73]

Therapeutics

Telomeres are generally made up of G-quadruplexes and remain important targets for therapeutic research and discoveries. These complexes have a high affinity for porphyrin rings which makes them effective anticancer agents. However, TMPyP4 has been limited for used due to its non-selectivity toward cancer cell telomeres and normal double stranded DNA (dsDNA). To address this issue analog of TMPyP4, it was synthesized known as 5Me which targets only G quadruplex DNA which inhibits cancer growth more effectively than TMPyP4.[74]

Ligand design and development remains an important field of research into therapeutic reagents due to the abundance of G-quadruplexes and their multiple conformational differences. One type of ligand involving a Quindoline derivative, SYUIQ-05, utilizes the stabilization of G-quadruplexes in promoter regions to inhibit the production of both the c-Myc protein product and the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT). This main pathway of targeting this region results in the lack of telomerase elongation, leading to arrested cell development. Further research remains necessary for the discovery of a single gene target to minimize unwanted reactivity with more efficient antitumor activity.[67]

Kvadruplexkötő ligandumok

One way of inducing or stabilizing G-quadruplex formation is to introduce a molecule which can bind to the G-quadruplex structure. A number of ligands, which can be both small molecules and proteins, can bind to the G-quadruplex. These ligands can be naturally occurring or synthetic. This has become an increasingly large field of research in genetics, biochemistry, and pharmacology.

A kationos porfinok és a telomesztatin be tudnak ágyazódni G-kvadruplexek közé.

The binding of ligands to G-quadruplexes is vital for anti-cancer pursuits because G-quadruplexes are found typically at translocation hot spots.  MM41, a ligand that binds selectively for a quadruplex on the BCL-2 promoter, is shaped with a central core and 4 side chains branching sterically out.  The shape of the ligand is vital because it closely matches the quadruplex which has stacked quartets and the loops of nucleic acids holding it together.  When bound, MM41's central chromophore is situated on top of the 3’ terminal G-quartet and the side chains of the ligand associate to the loops of the quadruplex. The quartet and the chromophore are bound with a π-π bond while the side chains and loops are not bound but are in close proximity. What makes this binding strong is the fluidity in the position of the loops to better associate with the ligand side chains.[75]

TMPyP4, a cationic porphyrin, is a more well known G4 binding ligand that helps to repress c-Myc.  The way in which TMPyP4 binds to G4's is similar to MM41, with the ring stacking onto the external G-quartet and side chains associating to the loops of G4's.[76]

When designing ligands to be bound to G-quadruplexes, the ligands have a higher affinity for parallel folded G-quadruplexes.  It has been found that ligands with smaller side chains bind better to the quadruplex because smaller ligands have more concentrated electron density. Furthermore, the hydrogen bonds of ligands with smaller side chains are shorter and therefore stronger. Ligands with mobile side chains, ones that are able to rotate around its center chromophore, associate more strongly to G-quadruplexes because conformation of the G4 loops and the ligand side chains can align.[77]

Kvadruplex-előrejelzési módszerek

A kvadruplexképzésre képes szekvenciák azonosítása fontos a szerepük megértésében. Általában egyszerű mintaegyezést használnak erre a szálon belüli kvadruplex képzésére alkalmas szekvenciákra: d(G3+N1-7G3+N1-7G3+N1-7G3+), ahol N tetszőleges nukleobázis (beleértve a guanint).[78] This rule has been widely used in on-line algorithms. Bár e szabály hatékonyan azonosít G-kvadruplex-képző helyeket, azonosíthat ezenkívül triplex-[79] és i-motívumú C-szál-képzésre alkalmas nem tökéletes homopurintükör-ismétlődések egy részét is.[80] Továbbá e szekvenciák képesek csúszott és visszahajtott szerkezetek azonosítására is, melyek kvadruplex-[4] és triplex-DNS képzésére alkalmasak.[81] Egy tanulmányban,[82] S. S. Smith kimutatta, hogy e motívumok bázispáronkénti megfigyelt száma (frekvenciája) a teljes elérhető genomszekvenciával rendelkező Eumetazoa-fajokban nagyobb. Ez alapján e szekvenciák pozitív szelekció alatt lehetnek, melyet a nem B-szerkezet kialakulását megakadályozó rendszerek fejlődése tett lehetővé.

2016-tól fejlett webalapú eszköztárak érhetők el G-kvadruplex-képző szekvenciák azonosítására, például a G4Hunter nyílt hozzáférésű felhasználóbarát, csúszóablakos változata[83] vagy a gépi tanuláson alapuló G4RNA Screener.[84]

Módszerek G-kvadruplexek tanulmányozására

Számos kísérleti módszert fejlesztettek ki G-kvadruplexek azonosítására. Ezek két nagy csoportba (biofizikai és biokémiai) sorolhatók.[85]

Biokémiai

A G-kvadruplex-képződés hosszabb szekvenciában való vizsgálatára biokémiai módszerek használhatók. A DNS-polimeráz stop-assay-ben a G-kvadruplex DNS-templátban való keletkezése a polimeráz megállását okozó akadály lehet, mely a primer meghosszabbítását megállítja.[86] A dimetil-szulfát (DMS)-piperidin bontóassay azon alaul, hogy a G-kvadruplex képződése megakadályozza a DMS általi guaninmetilációt, vvédelmi mintához vezetve a DNS G-kvadruplexénél a piperidines bontás után.[87]

Biofizikai

A G-kvadruplex alakja meghatározható a körkörös dikroizmus jeleinek vizsgálatával adott hullámhosszokon.[88] A párhuzamos G-kvadruplexek 240 nm-es CD-jele negatív, 262 nm-es jele pozitív, az antipárhuzamosak jele 262 nm-en negatív, 295-ön pozitív. A G-kvadruplex-képződés igazolásához a CD-kísérlet nem G-kvadruplex-stabilizáló (Li+), illetve G-kvadruplex-stabilizáló (K+ vagy G-kvadruplex ligandumokkal) és a távoli UV tartományban (180-230 nm) kell vizsgáni. Ehhez hasonlóan a G-kvadruplexek hőstabilitása az UV-jel 295 nm-en való vizsgálatával azonosítható.[89] A G-kvadruplexek olvadásakor az UV-elnyelés 295 nm-en csökken, a G-kvadruplexre jellemző hipokrómos váltást okozva. További megközelítés a G-kvadruplex észlelésére például a nanopórus-alapú módszer. Először kiderült, hogy a biológiai nanopórusok képesek a G-kvadruplexek észlelésére méretalapú kizárás alapján és a G-kvadruplexek és a fehérjék nanoüregei közti specifikus interakciókkal.[90] Egy újabb megközeítésbem a szilárdtest-nanopórusok és a DNS-nanotechnológia használatosak a G-kvadruplexek észleléséhez dsDNS-ben és a G-kvadruplex-keletkezés észlelésére.[91]

Szerepe neurológiai betegségekben

G-quadruplexes have been implicated in neurological disorders through two main mechanisms. The first is through expansions of G-repeats within genes that lead to the formation of G-quadruplex structures that directly cause disease, as is the case with the C9orf72 gene and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The second mechanism is through mutations that affect the expression of G-quadruplex binding proteins, as seen in the fragile X mental retardation gene 1 (FMR1) gene and Fragile X Syndrome.[92]

The C9orf72 gene codes for the protein C9orf72 which is found throughout the brain in neuronal cytoplasm and at presynaptic terminals.[93] Mutations of the C9orf72 gene have been linked to the development of FTD and ALS.[94] These two diseases have a causal relationship to GGGGCC (G4C2) repeats within the 1st intron of C9orf72 gene. Normal individuals typically have around 2 to 8 G4C2 repeats, but individuals with FTD or ALS have from 500 to several thousand G4C2 repeats.[95][96] The transcribed RNA of these repeats have been shown to form stable G-quadruplexes, with evidence showing that the G4C2 repeats in DNA have the ability to form mixed parallel-antiparallel G-quadruplex structures as well.[97][98] These RNA transcripts containing G4C2 repeats were shown to bind and separate a wide variety of proteins, including nucleolin. Nucleolin is involved in the synthesis and maturation of ribosomes within the nucleus, and separation of nucleolin by the mutated RNA transcripts impairs nucleolar function and ribosomal RNA synthesis.[99]

Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) is a widely expressed protein coded by the FMR1 gene that binds to G-quadruplex secondary structures in neurons and is involved in synaptic plasticity.[100] FMRP acts as a negative regulator of translation, and its binding stabilizes G-quadruplex structures in mRNA transcripts, inhibiting ribosome elongation of mRNA in the neuron's dendrite and controlling the timing of the transcript's expression.[101][102] Mutations of this gene can cause the development of Fragile X Syndrome, autism, and other neurological disorders.[103] Specifically, Fragile X Syndrome is caused by an increase from 50 to over 200 CGG repeats within exon 13 of the FMR1 gene. This repeat expansion promotes DNA methylation and other epigenetic heterochromatin modifications of FMR1 that prevent the transcription of the gene, leading to pathological low levels of FMRP.[104][105]

Terápiás megközelítések

Antisense-mediated interventions and small-molecule ligands are common strategies used to target neurological diseases linked to G-quadruplex expansion repeats. Therefore, these techniques are especially advantageous for targeting neurological diseases that have a gain-of-function mechanism, which is when the altered gene product has a new function or new expression of a gene; this has been detected in the C9orf72 (chromosome 9 open reading frame 72).[106]

Az antiszensz-terápia során szintetizált nukleinsavszálak kapcsolódnak közvetlenül és specifikusan egy gén mRNS-éhez, inaktiválva azt. Az antiszensz oligonukleotidok (ASO) gyakoriak a C9orf72 RNS célzására a GGGGCC ismétlődő szakaszban, csökkentve a C9orf72 sejtmodelljeiben a toxicitást.[107][108][109] ASOs have previously been used to restore normal phenotypes in other neurological diseases that have gain-of-function mechanisms, the only difference is that it was used in the absence of G-quadruplex expansion repeat regions.[110][111][112][113]

The G-quadruplex decoy strategy is another promising approach for targeting cancer cells by exploiting the unique structural features of the G-quadruplex. The strategy involves designing synthetic oligonucleotides that mimic the G-quadruplex structure and compete with the endogenous G-quadruplexes for binding to transcription factors. These decoys are typically composed of a G-rich sequence that can form a stable G-quadruplex structure and a short linker region that can be modified to optimize their properties.[114] When introduced to cancer cells the decoy can intercept associated transcription factors and bind them leading to the regulation of gene expression. Decoys have been successfully demonstrated to inhibit oncogenic KRAS in SCID mice leading to reduced tumour growth and increased median survival time.[115]

Another commonly used technique is the utilization of small-molecule ligands. These can be used to target G-quadruplex regions that cause neurological disorders. Approximately 1,000 various G-quadruplex ligands exist in which they are able to interact via their aromatic rings; this allows the small-molecule ligands to stack on the planar terminal tetrads within the G-quadruplex regions. A disadvantage of using small-molecule ligands as a therapeutic technique is that specificity is difficult to manage due to the variability of G-quadruplexes in their primary sequences, orientation, thermodynamic stability, and nucleic acid strand stoichiometry. 2020. márciusáig nem ismert egy kis ligandum, mely egy adott G-kvadruplexre lenne specifikus.[116][117] However, a cationic porphyrin known as TMPyP4 is able to bind to the C9orf72 GGGGCC repeat region, which causes the G-quadruplex repeat region to unfold and lose its interactions with proteins causing it to lose its functionality.[118] Small-molecule ligands, composed primarily of lead, can target GGGGCC repeat regions as well and ultimately decreased both repeat-associated non-ATG translation and RNA foci in neuron cells derived from patients with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This provides evidence that small-molecule ligands are an effective and efficient process to target GGGGCC regions, and that specificity for small-molecule ligand binding is a feasible goal for the scientific community.

A fémkomplexek számos G4-DNS-kötésre alkalmassá és lehetséges gyógyszerré tevő jellemzővel rendelkeznek. Míg a fém főleg szerkezeti szereppel rendelkezik a legtöbb G4-kötőben, vannak esetek, mikor közvetlenül a G4-gyel lépnek kölcsönhatásba elektrosztatikusan vagy a nukleobázisokkal való közvetlen koordinációval.[119]

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